DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SYSTEMS.

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SYSTEMS.

KINGSHIP/CLAN ORGANIZATION.
Familiy means a combination of wife husband children.Family was the basic and the simplest means of production in the agricultural societies.

THE CLAN ORGANIZATION.
Clan means a combination of several related families with a common ancestor,clan organization combined with both the matrilined and partrilineal societies .In the patrineal societies clan heritage was based on the father,in the matrilineal clan heritage was based on the mother examples of this society were Mweras,Kambas and Kikuyu whom others are patrineals.The main economic activity in the clan organization was agriculture ,clan is controlled or ruled by the clan’s head .More example matrilineal societies.the Ngido ,Zaramo,Makua and Matumbi.

DUTIES OR FUNCTIONS OF THE CLAN HEAD
1. To distribute land to the communities or clan members.

2. To preserve traditions and customs of the clan.

3. To preserve land belonging to the clan.

4. To settledisputes and quattels.

5. To find wives for boys and husbands for girls.

Types of clan organizations in agricultural societies .
There are two types of clan organization in agricultural societies;

1. Matrilineal

2. Partrilineal

Matrilineal clan organization.
This is society where by the husband moved to the wife’s family and children of the new family belonged to the mother’s (wife’s clan).As result clan heritage was based on the mother’s clan .Uncles have to make all the important decisions concerning the children and the nephews of their sister .Matrilineal age in Africa was practice among the Makonde,Makua,Mwera and the Yao of Tanzania and the Kamba of Kenya.


Patrilineal clan organization societies.
This is the system of organization in which the heritage was based on the father’s line and all children bared the name of the father.The husband had to pay substantial bride price in different forms such as cattle,goats, etc. in order to get the wife.the bride price could be stored as as wealth ,in this system all the children of the new family belonged to the father’s clan.
By the 18th and 19th century clan system changed to chief train ship after several came to be controlled under one leader.

AGE SET ORGANIZATION.
This kind of social-political organization based on age and sex.In order for one to fit in the society one was required to fulfill certain obligation.Often the main productive activity was based on the harsh environments.Such as arid grass land semi arid,in these areas poor soil could not support agriculture economy but vegetation could be used for animal husbandry.
Age set organization was the determinant form of organization in pastoral societies.The best example of these societies were the Maasai Nyakyusa of East Africa ,Hausa in West Africa and the Khoi of South Africa.The division of responsibilities.Age set covered a specific group of years for example.

a. Children group aged 0-8 years were regarded as non producers group.They were not directly involve in production.

b. Youth group 8-18 years their main responsibility was to graze animal,trading young animals and milking cattle they were assisted by women.

c. Moran group (people between youth and adults aged between 35 years) and above these were solders of the society and the society and the main responsibilities of the Moran were as follows;
i. To protect the whole society as trained solders.

ii. To protect live stock against dangerous animals and raiders.

iii. To increase the number of animals through raiding their neighbours

iv. To travel with their herds in search for water and pastures.

v. Laibons this is the group of elders aged 40 years and above it consisted of elders who were divided in groups namely;

d. Laibons this is the group of elders aged 40 years and above it consisted of elders who were divided in groups namely;

Junior elders

Elders

And senior elders.

Responsibilities of elders:
To control live stock and the properties on behalf of their communities.

To enable norms and ethics to govern the society.

They were top overseeds of all the spiritual and political matters of the community.

They were responsible for counseling other members of the society.

To settle disputes among the society members.

They were regarded as retired producers of the society but their ideas and skills were highly appreciated.

NTEMISHIP:
Ntemi comes from the word”kutema” which means opening up of new land.It also means finding a locality Ntemi was the name given to a leader who organized the action of opening up new land and controlled the people.Ntemiship was being practiced in Unyamwezi by 1300 AD.It then spread in the neighbouring such as the sukuma,sangu,hehe,kimbu,gogo and bena of Tanzania.There were about 300 Ntemiship in Tanzania in the 18th C.Among the sukuma,the ruler in Ntemiship organization was called Ntemi.He became Ntemi because he founder he was founder of the locality.He was chosen by a counsel of elders choosing a person to become Ntemi depended on his wisdom courage and experience.

Responsibilities of the Ntemi:
1. He was the top authority in the political and matters provided over all guidance in the community.

2. He enforced proper uses of resources such as land,water,forest resources etc.

3. He was the overseer of the community food reserve.

4. He settled disputes in the community.

5. He had the religious power.He led the people in his community in performing religious and offering sacrificies to the sprits.

6. To collect tributes from his subjects.

7. He provided over all guidance in the society.

Factors for the rise of the Nyamwezi Kingdom:
Nyamwezi who lived in central Tanzania area group of the Bantu societies.Each of these societies had their own settlements headed by a chief and tilled Mtemi(Ntemi).
Ntemiship (chiefdom) was composed of people of shared background or kingship and believes. Each of the Nyamwezi kingdoms had a Ntemi at the centre who was helped by a council of elders the Wanyampala in administration.Towards the middle of 19th century more dynamic political structure developed among the Nyamwezi under Fundikira ,Nyunguyamawe and Mirambo.This led to the institution of the Ntemi becoming of the most powerful position;the several Nyamwezi settlements were united under one senior Ntemi.

Factors for the rise of the Nyamwezi kingdom or chiefdom can be explained below as follows.

1. Ngoni invasions – the Ngoni invasions in Western Tanganyika made the Nyamwezi people to unite in order to resist the Ngoni attackers.

2. The expansion of real trade into the regional trade/long distance trade due to emergency of wealthy traders like the Mirambo who made the effective use of Runganga.

3. Penetration of the Europeans into the coastal interior trade.This introduced new trading pattern to the Nyamwezi traders who joined together to effective resist European pressure to stop slave trade.

4. The rise of Mirambo as trader and leader used their influence to unite the Nyamwezi land.

5. The use of the gun and gun powder by the Mirambo ‘s solders,this caused the weakening of watemi submissive to his rule.

6. Growth of the towns Example :Tabora and Ujiji.

7. Population growth.

8. Unity among the people.

STATE ORGANIZATION.
State is a community occupying a certain given territory and living under full control of its government and therefore it is independent form of external control.State in East Africa mostly started to emerge in the 18th century AD due to the spread of agricultural communities and improvement of science and technology.Clan which possessed adequate labour and resources or had better skills of iron use became dominant clan and leader of the community or village ,they were respected and obeyed by other clan members.Those who disagreed with them them migrated to other lands.In this way leader of the dominant clan assumed political and spiritual or ritual functions.Kings and queens were state leaders.Village heads who were leaders of many clans in villages were leaders of many clans in villages were under state of kings or queens also had their court to deal with judicial matters.

GENERAL FACTORS FOR STATE FORMATION.
1. Conquest some powerful states conquered the weaker societies and therefore making strong and expand.Forexample Buganda conqured Bunyoro in the interlacustrine regions.

2. Trade-trade such as the Long distance trade enabled the society concerned to become strong and powerful after acquiring commodities of different types including weapons which were used for strengththening their societies.Baganda got guns from the East Coast to defend and expand.The empire of the Mali,Ghana and Songhai got metal and hoes from north Africa to strength their military.

3. Good climate and fertile soils(soil fertility )it led to the increase of food and assurance of feeding which led to population increase, a factor which was very important for the state formation.For instance heavy rainfall and fertile soil enabled production of more food and surplus in Buganda.

4. Good leadership some African rulers were strong and ambitious to expand their empire so they organized their people and support from them for example; Kabanga of Buganda.

5. Availability of iron –iron promoted agricultural products and was used for making war which in turn became most important for conquering other states.

6. Migration-this was complimentary factor it happened that some people migrated to other states and brought with them new technology and skills which were used to expand and strengthen the new societies concerned.

7. Size of the kingdom-kingdoms that were small in size such as Buganda and Ghana were easier to organize,to administer effectively and to defend unlike the larger kingdoms like the Bunyoro,the effective control was impossible.

Types of states in Africa;
Each of the colonial Africa societies had a system of government that means each society had a set of rules,laws and traditions sometimes called customes that established part of a large group .There were two dominant states emerged Africa and the varied more one place to another;

1. Decentralized state(non-centralized) or stateless political societies

2. Centralized kingdoms and empires.

DECRENTRALIZED (NON CENTRALIZED STATE) OR STATELES POLITICAL STATE.
These are societies that did not have well defined and complex or centralized system of government.These emerged as a result of one powerful family to control other clan to dominance of wealth and political.

Characteristics of decentralized states:
1. Most of them are small in terms of population and geographical areas.

2. Stateless political societies in Africa were usually made up of a group of either neighboring towns or villages that had no political connection with a larger kingdom as a nation.

3. They are characterized by politically autonomons villages.That is each village was politically separated and not connected to the neighboring village also no hereditary chiefs.

4. These were religious organization structures of kinship ties lineage groups and secret societies that provided regulations.

5. They did not have a system of chiefs,it showed postion of chief was weak and was not hereditary.

6. Chiefs were usually selected by a group of elders and not based on their family connections.

7. Some decentralized societies did not have chiefs they were organized by a council of elders which comprised of many elderly people in the community.

CENTRALIZED KINGDOMS AND EMPIRES.
These are large kingdoms or empires that developed in a complex system of government.These large empires governed ny kings who had near absolute power such as Ancient Egypt in north Africa,Ghana,mali and Songhai in West Africa,Zimbabwe (Southern Africa),Bunyoro,Buganda,Karagwe,Ankole and Toro of East Africa.These kingdoms were similar to those empires in Asia and Europe that were in existence during the same time/period.Mansa Musa of Mali and the Sunni Ally of Songhai had near few people .Political societies refer to these societies as centralized.

SONGHAI EMPIRE (DEVELOPMENT TOWN OF GAO).
Another name for Songhai is Al Kaw Kaw.
· Rise 14th C AD

· Fall in 16th C AD

· Rulers; Sunni Ali and Alasikia Mohamed

· Morran invaded Songhai in 16th AD

Forest states

· AYO

· IFE

· BENIN

· ASANTS

· DOHAMEY

· ASANTE EMPIRE

· The rise 18th C AD

· The fall 19th C AD

Founders and heads of the Asante

Founder-Akan people

Title of a ruler chiefs Asante Hene.

Symbol of the state golden stolls.

Leaders-Obin Yaboa,Osei Tutu,and Opuku ware

States in the north east Africa.
1. Egypt

2. Nubian

3. Ethiopia

Egypt
· Grew between 1500-5000BC the leader was Pharaoh

· Buganda kingdom

· Rise 14th and 15th C

· Title of the leader-Kabaka.

FACTORS THAT GAVE RISE TO CENTRALIZED SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT.
1. Existence of strong leadership for example among the Baganda, strong and the able rulers such as Kyabagu,Suna and Mutesa I were able to unite the Baganda people and govern them.

2. Permanent cultivation and dense population

3. A long period of war with neighbours encouraged the people to form one united state for the security such as among the Sambaa and Baganda.

4. Strong army helped to conquer new areas and force the people to accept the ruler of one leader.Eg Chief mirambo of Unyamwezi.

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DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND THEIR IMPACT.

DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND THEIR IMPACT.

Introduction:
Environment: is total surroundings of man include man made natural features. Land,water bodies,atmosphere,mountains,hills,infrastructures ie building,roads,etc.

TECHNOLOGY: Is the scientific knowledge used to design and make tools.

DEVELOPMENT: Refer to progressive changes from low to high standard of living.

HAND CRAFT INDUSTRIES AND MINING IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.

Handcraft industries: these were industries of which man used hands and skills to produce tool and weapons
Industries- is the place where raw materials are processed into finished goods eg cotton –colth.

Specialized handcraft industries in Africa.
· Salt making industries

· Iron working

· Copper mining

· Gold mining

· Pottery making

· Spinning and weaving industries

· Bark-cloth industries

· Canoe making industries.

1. Salt making industries-these are industries which engaged in production of soil in pre-colonial Africa.

Uses of salt.
· It is used for adding flavor taste for the food in the kitchen

· It is used for preservation of food like fish and meat.

Methods of obtaining salt.
1. From different reeds
Reeds were collected, dried and burned, the ashes would be filtered while the ashes remain liquid would be evaporated and residue would be used as salt.
Places-near Lake Victoria,Kyoga and Albert,among Baganda and Buhaya tribes and among Mang’anja people near shores of Lake Nyasa.

2. Boiling and evaporating method
Sea or ocean water put into pans and left to evaporate,,the salt crystals would be collected and used as salt.
Place: around coastal areas.

3. Salt mining
Salt was mined under neath rocks.
Place: at Taghza,Bilma around lake Chad in western Sudan.
Near lake Bangwela and river Luapala in central Africa.

4. Water by fire.
Spring water containing salt was boiled ND FINALLY SALT WAS OBTAINED.
Place with salt,in Uvinza salt spring along river malagasi in central Africa.
Uses of salt.
1. Salt is used as an ingredient in cookery.

2. Food preservation

3. It is used as medicine ie. On freshly cut wounds

4. It was used as medium of exchange (trade exchange).

5. Animals hides were cured using salt before used to make

6. In Egypt salt was used to preserve a dead body.(mummification ).

IRON INDUSTRY.
By the beginning of the 19th century,most of the African societies were able to produce their own iron.The famous blacksmith in Africa was able to produce their own iron.IN Tanzania there were iron deposits in itewe near chunya,liganga and Ulunguru Mountains.

· Nubian of sudan along the river Nile.

· People along Futa djalon and Niger river in West Africa.the Mang’anja people of Malawi

· The Venda people of Northern Transvaal.

· The Mashona of Zambia

There were also deposits in Argeria,Tunisia,Morocco,Liberia,Sieraleone Angola and Zimbabwe.

In Ethiopia blacksmiths were not allowed to inherit land or even to inter marry with other people.

Uses of iron.
1. Iron was used to make agricultural tools.

2. Iron was used to make weapons ie. Spears ,swords etc.

3. Iron was a medium of exchange,some people used iron bars or hoes as taken when paying bride price ie. The sukuma in the northern west Tanganyika.

4. Iron was also a measure of wealth,people who had more iron than others were considered wealthy.

5. Iron was an important trade commodity ie,Masai trade cattle for iron weapons from the pare and the Kikuyu.

6. Some objects used in religious ceremonies were made of iron ie, Yoruba and fon made iron objects to honour Oqun(the God of iron and war).

COPPER MINING AND THE PROCESSING INDUSTRIES.
The production and use of copper in pure colonial Africa was wide spread.Pure copper from the earth’s surface.By 300 BC ,the Egyptians were already producing cooper.Ibo and Yoruba in Nigeria.Central Kafua River and the Gwai River in Zambia.South Africa. Democratic Rebuplic of Congo formerly known as Zaire.

Uses of Cooper.
1. It is used to make ornaments such as bangles and earnings for example Ndebele women wore cooper and brass,rings as a symbol of representing their husband’s wealth.

2. Used to make pors,pans and other utensil.

3. Used to make weapons such as daggers and knives.

4. Bars of copper were used as a medium of exchange and measure of value.

5. Copper was used as trade commodity.

Gold was one among the 1st metals to be used in Africa.It was easy to find gold near the earth.s surface.In most parst of Africa,gold was found in the river bed,gold was obtainied by washing gold bearing rocks for example river sabi and river Zambezi in Ashanti and Gyain in Ghana and Meroe in Sudan .

Uses of gold.
· It is used to make types of ornaments for example rings,earings,necklace and bracelets (made funery masks for the pharaohs in Egypt).

· Gold used to make weapons for example knives,handle especially for important rulers.

· Gold was used in making utensils such as plates,cups and spoons for the rich.

· In Egypt gold was used to make coins.

· Gold was an important trade commodity,in East Africa the town of Kilwa became prosperous due to gold trade.

· Gold was used as a currency as well as measure of wealth.
· Rich people used gold to decorate buildings.

POTTERY MAKING.
Pottery was practiced in areas where was clay soil.Famous people where;Akamba,kisii,Batwa,Gisu and Pare.

Advantage of pottery.
1. Enables communicates to make containers for cooking food.

2. Produced containers for storing water,milk,beer and grains.

3. Pottery produce items or goods for trade for example massed exchange cattle for pottery.

4. Pottery containers were used for serving food drinks at homes.

WEAVING AND BASKETRY INDUSTRY.
Some people were skilled in making various items by weaving.The required raw materials include grasses ,leaves and fibers.In East Africa the Lou were experts in basketry and Nyakyusa were experts in making mats.

Advantages of weaving and basketry.
1. Some communities built houses and boats.
2. Supplied communities with items such as beds and mats.
3. Provided items for trade
4. Provided containers to carry loads easily,for example Kikuyu and Kamba 9Kenyans).
5. Given fish troops and nets.
6. Provided storage for agricultural produce.

TEXTILE PRODUCTION/CLOTH MAKING INDUSTRY.
Textile production is the making of cloth from different materials.Bark cloth was made from tree barks among the Nyakyusa ,Buhaya and Buganda.Silk production was mainly in Nigeria and Madagascar.

Wool obtained from sheep,goat and camel.Cotton was mainly grown by the Yoruba in Nigeria and in Guinea.A mong the Fipa,items were made textile including prepared blankets,carpets and clothes.

AGRICULTURE.
Agriculture is the domestication of plants and animals.Agriculture beganover 10000 years ago.In Africa agriculture began in the Nile valley in Egypt around 7000 B.C .

Facts that contributed to the beginning of agriculture.
1. There were plants animals

2. Increase of human population ,natural environment could not provide adequate food.

3. Changes of climate ie. Drought or occurrence of drought.

4. Competition for food between the humans and the animals.

5. People searched for goods far away from their homes.

There were mainly three types of agriculture practiced in ancient Africa
1. Pastoralism

2. Crop cultivation

3. Mixed farming

Crop cultivation
Different types of crops were grown in various of Africa depending on the natural resources.
Crop cultivation was divided into two.

1. Shifting cultivation

2. Permanent cultivation

Shifting cultivation
In this system land was cultivated and planted for sometimes for example about three years,then the farmers would shift their farming activities to a new area.This farming practice was to allow the land to regain its fertility and control diseases and pests.In Africa shifting cultivation was common in the central,western and southern Tanzania (miombo wood land) and Eastern Kenya).This system was possible where the area was low populated (moderate climate/average amount of rainfall),soil was light and fertility was easily hausted.

Permanent crop cultivation.
Permanent crop cultivation was adopted in areas or regions with dense population.These was no extra land to move to availability of rainfall,also irrigation,terracing and fertilizers(manure)were applied.Example of these areas where permanent cultivation was carried out include the following:-

1. Egypt

2. Cambrai region in the north eastern Togo

3. Among the Chaggas on the slopes of mountain Kilimanjaro

4. The Lozi of Zambia

5. The Akamba of Kenya

6. Slopes of ,ountain Meru,souther highland of Tanzania and central Kenyan highland.

7. Indian Ocean coastaline,North west of Lake Victoria.

Mixed farming.
This was kind of agriculture which includes crop cultivation and animals keeping, mainly in glass land areas with seasonal rainfall

The glass land areas were goods for growing crops and postures for animals.

The crops grown was such as

Sorghum

Maize

Cassava

Beans

Millet

Animals kept were:-

Goats

Donkey

Cattle

Horses

Sheep.

This kind of agriculture was common among the Waha,Nyamwezi ,Fipa ,hehe,kikuyu etc.

PASTORALISM
Pastoralism is the practice of keeping livestock such as cattle,sheep,camels and goats.One important factor in the spread of pastoralism in Africa was the presence or absence of the tsetse-fly .These flies caused sleeping sickness to human and trypasonomials to domestic animals.The pastoralist avoided tsesefly infected areas especially in the low-lying valleys and thick forest regions.Example of pastoralists in Africa are:-

· The Fulani of west Africa.

· The Gaua and Somalli of North-East Africa.

· Masai of East Africa.

· Barabaig,Karamajong of East Africa.

There are two types of pastoralism.
1. Normadic pastoralism

2. Sedentary pastoralism

Nomadic pastoralism
Is the seasonal movement of people with their livestock in search if water and pastures.Many nomadic pastoralistics lived on meat,milk and blood .They occupy the scrub land and the savannah regions.Those areas get little rain fall.

Example of nomadic pastoralists include
· Tourane’s

· The Fulani

· The barbeigr

· The omomo

· The karamajong

· The maasai

Sedentary pastoralism
Sedentary means staying or giving in the same area.Sedentary pastoralists did not move from place.Example are the agriculturalist maasai (kwavi).the animals kept by such communities are fewer than those kept by nomadic pastoralists.

How agriculture changed man’s life.
1. It led to the production of ore food in these societies.

2. Agriculture forced people to settle down in one place.

3. It encouraged social and political organizations.

4. It led the expansion of exchange trade due to surplus.

5. It encouraged specialization of work in the society,for example people begun to practice medicine,priestly duties and different crafts.

6. Some people became wealthier than others in the society due to presence more land and animals.

7. The agriculturists were forced to come up with new religions that could save their animals or livestock,for example new gods.

8. Agriculture led to the introduction of science and technology.Forexample in Egypt ,there was need for irrigation.

TRADE IN THE PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.
· Trade is the process of buying and selling of goods and services between people.There was need to trade in order to get all things needed by the communities.Trade tends to develop in any society whrere there is surplus production.

METHODS OF TRADE.
1. Barter trade is the exchange of goods for goods,forexample exchange of pots for goats or maize.

2. A currency method of trade is where money is used .In pre-colonial Africa iron,hoes,rolls of cloth,copper rods,salt and gold were used were used as money.

LOCAL TRADE.
Refer to the kind of trade which is conducted within the same geographical area.
In local trade goods are exchange between people living in the same geographical area,such as a town or village.Local trade not for profit making but just to obtain essential goods.ie pastoral communities like the maasai needed vegetables and grains from cultivators like the Nyakyusa and the Chaga.

Impacts of Local trade.
1. Local trade united people within same area.

2. Communities obtained goods such as tools, weapons,food stuffs and medical herbas.

3. Transport routes were improved

4. Some important market centers emerged along the market routes.

5. Local trade encouraged communities to expand production.

REGIONAL TRADE
Regional trade refers to trade conducted from one region to another (Trade conducted between two different geographical regions). Regional trade involved a wider variety of goods compared to local trade.It was not for profit making.For example regional trade were Trans Sahara trade,Long distance trade of East Africa and Central Africa.Regional trade in the pre-colonial Africa took place in 19th century.

THE KAMBA,The Kamba were leading the long distance trade through northern route in the 19th century.They Kamba caravan brought ivory,guns hides and beeswax from the interior.From the coast they obtained cloth,salt,copper,cowries shells and jewellerTHE YAO.The Yao traders got beads and cloth from Kilwa.They also capture and sold slave from neighboring communities,Yao chiefs such as Mpanda,mataka,machemba and mtalika dominated the southern route during the long distance trade.

THE NYAMWEZI,The Nyeamwezi dominated the central route conducted trade between the interior of Tanganyika and the coast.The Nyamwezi sold slaves and Ivory,hide rhinoceros horn.Nyamwezi traders succeeded because of the following reasons.

1. The Nyamwezi leaders such as the Msirikazi,Nyungu ya Mawe and Mirambi supported the trade.

2. Nyamwezi were centrally placed on the route to the coast.

3. High demand for trade items such as ovory and slaves.

4. There was existence of variety of trade items such as ivory and gold

5. Zanzibar needed slaves and ivory in the 1800 AD.

By the 1830 AD there were three main trade routes ie.
1. The southern route,controlled by Yao.

2. The central route,controlled by the Nyamwezi

3. The Northern route,controlled by the Kamba traders from the coast brough cloth,beads,wire and guns from interior goods were ivory and slaves.

Impacts /effects of regional trade .
Positive consequences/impacts.

1. Some traders became very rich, eg Mirambo and Isike.

2. The communities were able to obtain new commodities eg. Guns,clothes,beads,ivory,etc.

3. The rise of of trade centers such as Saadans,Pangani,Bagamoyo,Tabora,Ujiji,Voi,and Taveta.

4. The rise of trade routes.

5. The rise of powerful Empires/Kingdoms such as Nyamwezi.

6. New food crops such as maize ,rice and cassava were introduce.

7. Spread of Islam by the Arabs by the Arabs to the interior Tabora and Ujiji.

Negative impacts.
1. The rise of inter-tribal wars in Order to get slaves.

2. Many elephant were killed as there was high demand of Ivory.

3. It led to depopulation and under development in some in some areas.

4. Slave raids caused insecurity and loss of innocent lives.

5. Foreigners used trade routes to reach to the interior.

6. Exploitation of African wealth by Europeans and Asians.

7. Decline of local industries in Africa.

EAST AFRICA MAP SHOWING ROUTES,COMMODITIES AND SOCIETIES INVOLVED IN LONG DISTANCE .

TRANS SAHARAN TRADE.
Trans Sahara trade was the trade conducted across the Sahara desert.It involved the people of Northern Africa and the people of Western Sudan.This trade started long time ago between 3000BC to 2000BC .It became important in the 1st century AD after the people of West Africa to discover the use of camel and led to formation of many trade routes.The Trans Sahara trade was known as dump trade because there wa no language which was used .

People who involved in the trade.
1. West Africa

2. North Africa.

3. Savannah Region

MOVEMENT OF TRADERS.
People (traders) organized themselves in known as CARAVANS.

Goods involved in the trade
Kola nuts,gold,salt,food stuffs,Ivory,clothes,gold,bee-wax,slaves and ostrich features goods from West.And from North Africa salt and animal skin.Goods from European and Asia were cotton and silk cloth,swords,guns,metal pans, horse and Arabic books.

Trade routes.
1. Western route-from Sijilmasa ,Fez in Morocco passed through Taghaza,Walata,Audaghost,and Kumbi Saleh to Timbuktu.

2. Central route-this passed Tunis,Ghat,Ghamese,kano,Gao and Hausa Land.

3. Eastern route-this began in Tripol,Marzul and Bilma.

FACTORS THAT LED TO THE GROWTH OF THE TRANS-SAHARA TRADE.
The following are some of the factors that contributed to the growth of the Trans Sahara trade.

i. Stability of the communities,both North African and Western Sudan zone were politically stable.For example leaders like Sundiata Keita and Mansa Musa collected taxes and established guides on trade routes.This enabled the people to conduct trade without fear.Up to the end of the 15th century AD many traders motivated to come to Western Sudan for trade.

ii. Western Sudan provided goods needed b traders from Europe.These goods included gold ,ivory and slaves .Through trading Western Sudan exchange her own commodities with goods from Western Europe and Asia.In turn ,she got clothes,guns and other commodities.The surplus production in Western Sudan was adequate to sustain demand for products such as kolanuts and gold,hides,ivory slaves,whereas Taghaza produced enough sdalt to meet the needs in Western Sudan.The high production capacity in region enhanced the growth of the Trans Saharan trade.

iii. Honesty;the Berbers of North Afican traders of Western Africa trusted each other.Traders brought in commodities without fear of theft and robbery,enabling the trade to flourish.

iv. The use camels for transport suited the desert condition and facilitate the development of the Trans-saharan trade.These animals could not only carry more commodities than horse and human porters,but also endured desert conditions.Camels can survive without water for a longtime .
This convenient means of transport strengthened the development of the Trans-sahara trade.

v. Geographical location of the region;the location and climate favoured the production of kola nuts and other foodstuffs that were needed in the community,especially the forest region to the south.The region of Western Sudan had no impassable forests because many areas were covered by short grassland.This enabled traders to cross the desert without fear or any difficulty.

vi. The envision of medium of exchange contributed to the growth of the Trans-saharan trade.At the beginning,only the silent barter system of trade was practices.Later on,cowrie shells were introduced as a convenient medium of exchange.This in turn facilitated the development of the Trans-saharan trade.

vii. From the northern part,the Berbers provided capital to many traders who used to cross the sahara desert.

viii. From the language barrier,this was attained after Arabic language became the trader’s medium of communication .This in turn facilitated the trade by making communication between the traders easy.

ix. Absence of competition for trading activities in the region,there were no regular ships that coast of West Africa,As a result,what was produced from the forest zone was peacefully transported to North Africa through the Saharan desert.

x. Scarcity of commodities like gold and salt.

xi. Introduction of horse,which were used in conquest and expansion.


Effects of the Trans-saharan trade in Africa.
1. It led to the growth of empires like Ghana ,Mali etc.

2. It increased development of Agriculture.

3. It led to the introduction of Arabic Islamic religion culture.

4. Formation of mixed races example half cast.

5. Growth of town and cities eg Jenne,Timbukutu,Gao and Walata.

THE DECLINE OF THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE.

By the second of the nineteenth century ,the volume of Trans-saharan trade to decline .A number of obstacles or problems have been identified explain the decline.These are:-

i. strong desert winds ,the traders could not withstand the hazards of stoms.Many abandoned the trade as result.

ii. Traders faced the denger of getting lost in the desert because the routes were not clear.Once traders got lost,they would wander in the desert for a long time and eventually die of thirst and starvation.


iii. Traders were subjected to attacks by desert robbers who made their living by stealing from trade caravans.In the process,traders lost their lives and goods.This discouraged traders from participating effectively in the trade.

iv. The extreme climatic conditions were unfavourable to traders.The heat and high temperatures during the day and every low temperatures at night due to the absence of cloud cover discouraged traders.


v. Traders faced the danger of highly poisonous desert creatures whose bites could result in death.These included snakes and scorpions.

vi. Traders faced language difficulties.This hampered communication during trade.As such “silent trade” had to be used initially.

vii. The development of the Trans-Atlantic rout across the Atlantic Ocean to European;commodities like and slaves were transported quickly to the coast of West Africa from where they wer transported to European.Thus the trade routes shifted from the Saharan desert to the Atlantic .Instead of the direct route to the North,they went via the coast of West Africa.

viii. Commodities obtained from Western from Western Sudan such as salt and gold faced competition from similar goods other America cheaply.As result.the volume of Trans-saharan trade decreased because Western Sudan could no longer clain a monopoly in production of certain commodities like salt and gold.Also gold from Zimbambwe via Sofala port by the Portuguese ended up in Europe.

ix. The abolition of slave trade contributed to the decline of the Trans-saharan trade.Slaves were the main item of trade.When slave was abolished started to decline.

x. Shortage of water also led to the decline in trade.The oases in the Saharan desert provided water seasonally but they sometimes dried up.This made it difficult for the traders to cross the Saharan desert.

xi. Wars,the war in Morocco and the one between Christians and Muslims disrupted the smooth of the trade.The Moroccan invansion of western Sudan in 1951 AD distributed the growth of the trade by taking gold at Wangara.

Finally ,the Trans-saharan trade collapsed in the 16th sentury,from this period onwards,west Africa witnessed the expansion of European occupation on the coast of West Africa.

TRANS SAHARAN ROUTE.

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EVALUATION OF MAN,TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT.

EVALUATION OF MAN,TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT.

Evolution of man, is the gradual changes development of plants and animals from a simple form to a more complex form.This change leads to existence of plants and animals that are different from the original plants and animals .

The theory of revolution of man,
The theory of evolution of man tries to explain the origin of man by describing the changes that our ancestors underwent until they were like modern man.

There are two theories which attempt to explain the origin of man.

1st THEORY OF CREATION.
This theory explains that there is super natural power that creates everything.
This super natural power is God ,refer from the Bible and Qur’an eg. Biblical knowledge (Genesis chapter 1:26) it says that:- God created man by using soil, at first they created a man and then later a woman.
These two creatures established their relationship and this marked the beginning of human family .

2nd THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION OF MAN.
The theory of evolution of man was proposed by an English man known as Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882).
The theory says that- man’s species has been changing gradually from lower stage to better stage due to environment.
Changing goes hand in hand with improvement of methods of obtaining food,cloth and shelter.

The gradual change of man is called evolution.The first man belong to the family of primates which included Ape,Gorilla,Monkey and Chimpanzee.
These animals lived in the forest walking on four limbs and their bodies covered with hair. Because of environmental changes and diminishing of forests,they started to live in open grassland.
Environment forced them to adopt new way of walking.
The forelimbs instead of walking become special for tool making and using.

Forelimbs become free from walking

The walking is known as Bi-pedalism

STAGE OF MAN’S EVOLUTION
1. PRIMATES (Ape ,Gorilla, Monkey,Chimpanzee).

Characteristics
1. Their bodies were covered with lots of hair.

2. They walked on four limbs

3. They lived in dense forest .

4. They had poorly mental abilities.

5. They totally depended on nature eg, ate raw food.

2. AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFRICAN FAMILY.
This stage started about 12 million years ago (B.C) when primates changed to near man.

This stage divided into two
1. Zinjanthropus

2. Homo habilis

Zinjantropus
In this stage,
1. Fore limbs were free from walking

2. Hind limbs were used for standing and body balance.

3. Man become skillful

Homo habilis
· It lived between 1,500,000 and 750,000 BC

· Homohabilis become more skillful man,because was systematic tools maker.

· Homohabilis belived to be direct ancestor of modern man.

· He had bigger brain and he was more systematic tool maker.

· The skull of those creatures were discovered at Olduvai Gorge and omo in Eastern Rudolf in Kenya.-

3rd stage: Homo erectus
· Man was fully moving upright

· He become more skillful tools maker than Homohabilis.

· It’s fossils have been dug up in Olorgesaille and near Lake Turkana in Kenya,Oldivai gorge in Tanzania.

4th stage:Homo sapiens
Characterstics

· He is true man of today

· Has a large brain in size

· Has less thick jaws

· He was highly skillful man

· He made tools by using stone and bones.

NB: The theory of evolution has been supported by Archaeologist

Dr. Leakey in Olduvai Gorge in 1959

Basic characteristics of human evolution.
1. Development of man’s ability to design,make and use tool.

2. Ability of man to walk on two limbs.(Bi-pedalism).

3. Ability of man to think

4. Ability of man to domesticate plants and animals


5th Homo sapiens sapiens.
Homo sapiens is a modern man.

Homo sapiens is believed to have evolved into Homo sapiens sapiens about 50,000 years ago.

This man has a large brain and great intelligence.

STONE AGE
Age, Is a period based on man’s economic activities and type of the tools used.eg Stone age,Iron age,Science technology age etc.

Stone age is divided into three ages.
1. Early or Old stone age

2. Middle stone age

3. Late or new stone age.

EARLY OR OLD STONE AGE.
This is the first of stone age.It existed between 1,750,000B.C and 750,000 B.C
Zinjanthropus was the only man existed in this period.

· The early stone tools were pebbles and chopping.

Man used these tool for:
· Killing and skinning animals flesh

· Digging up roots

· Cutting tree branches

· For defense.

Man obtained his food by hunting and gathering
In this period man had low ability to control his environment

MIDDLE STONE AGE TOOLS

THE CHARACTERISTIC OF EARLY OR OLD STONE AGE.
In East Africa stone age sites are found at Olorgasaille,Nsongezi and Olduvai.

1. Man lived primitive life depending on nature

2. Man made and use crude (poor) tools.

3. Man lived by hunting and gathering

4. Man ate raw food i.e meat.

5. Man walked up right.

6. Man lived in caves.

7. Man did not wear clothes

MIDDLES STONE AGE.
This stage covered he period between 750,000 BC to 50,000 BC.
This period man improved his stone tools. Tools were – smaller,sharper and easier to handle.
Tools were were spear,arrows,needle,stone picks,knives etc.these tools were used for.

· Digging up roots

· Killing and skinning animals

· Cutting and chopping

THE NEW STONE AGE TOOLS.

THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE
How man discovered fire?
Fire was discovered by man who was scratching pieces of wood using his hand.
The more he continued scratching,the pieces of wood got the smoke come out,the scratch caused friction of scratched wood and led to emission of fire.

IMPORTANCE OF FIRE TO MAN.
1. Man started to eat roasted food ie meat.

2. Man started to live in cold areas.

3. Man used fire to clean bushes.

4. Man used fire to provide light at night.

5. Fire used to kill small animals eg. Rabbit

6. With fire man increased working hours.

7. Man use fire to attract prey

8. Man used fire for defense from dangerous animals like lion.

MANS’S ANCESTOR MAKING FIRE

GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF MIDDLE STONE AGE
1. Man discovered fire

2. Man developed some religious beliefs.

3. Man started to live complex life.

4. Man’s main occupation were:-

· Hunting and gathering

· Sedentary/nomadic life.

THE LATE STONE AGE (NEW STONE AGE).
In East Africa,late stone age started from around 50,000 BC to the first millennium AD

· In this stage man used better tools compare to the previous stone ages.

· Tools become more sharper and smaller in size.

· Tools were were stone exes,blades,spears,arrows,etc.

· Man started permanent settlement.

The tools were still largely made of stone but they were far better than those of earlier periods.
This period marked the beginning of settled communities.

In areas such as Kondoa Irangi,painting and drawings in the carves provided this facts.
The painting and drawings show the shape of tools used and animal hunted.

Characteristics of the late stone age.
1. Man used better tools compare to the previous ages.

2. Man started to domesticated plant and animal.

3. Man become food producer.

4. Increase of population.

5. It was beginning of settled communities and villages.

6. This period marked to be primarily on division of labour.

Example:women become child bearers and cares while man for protecting the families and hunting

Inform education started in this period.

THE LATE STONE AGE TOOLS

IRON AGE
· Iron age believed to have started during the first millennium A.D

· This was the period when man made and used Iron tools.

· The discovery and use of iron improved man’s standard of living.

· Iron tools were discovered about 3000 years ago.

· The first people to make and use iron tools in Africa were the people of Ethiopia and Egypt.

· Iron skill important towns for iron smelting were

o Meroe in Sudan

o Axum in Ethiopia

o Nok area in West Africa.

· In East Africa,it is believed that man started to use iron from the first millennium A.D

Eg Iron discovered earlier in Engaruka,Uvinza ,Karagwe,Ugweno and Western shore of lake Victoria.

· Iron tools included iron in spears,arrows,Axes,Hoes etc.

· Iron technology helped early African societies to

o Produce and use iron tools

o To produce better weapons for defence.

THE RESULT OF USING IRON TOOLS.
1. It led to increase in food production.Man could now clear his areas for cultivation.

2. Increase in population due to more food.

3. There was emergence of specialization ie, iron workers (black smiths) and food producers.

4. It led to the emergence of complex villages/development of political organization as kingdom and states.

5. Tool were highly improved and more efficient.

6. There was expansion of trade relation (expansion of trade).

DIAGRAM OF IRON TOOLS.

THE MAJOR EARLY IRON CENTERS IN AFRICA

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